COPYRIGHT LAW I am an attorney practicing copyright law and computer law. I read a series of queries in Net.Legal about copyright law and was dismayed to find that people who had no idea what they were talking about were spreading misinformation over the network. Considering that the penalties for copyright infringement can include $50,000.00 damages per infringed work, attorneys' fees, court costs, criminal fines and imprisonment, and considering that ignorance is no excuse and innocent intent is not even a recognized defense, I cringe to see the network used as a soapbox for the ill-informed. For that reason, this article will discuss copyright law and license law as they pertain to computer software. My goal is to enable readers to determine when they should be concerned about infringing and when they can relax about it. I also want to let programmers know how to obtain copyright for their work. I'll explain the purpose of software licenses, and discuss the effect that the license has on copyright. For those of you who are programmers, I'll help you decide whether you own the programs you write on the job or your boss owns them. I will also mention trademark law and patent law briefly, in order to clarify some confusion about which is which. Incidentally, if you read this entire essay, you will be able to determine whether or not the essay is copyrighted and whether or not you can make a printout of it. This is a long article, and you may not want to read all of it. Here is an outline to help you decide what to read and what to ignore: PART ONE: THE MEANING OF COPYRIGHT FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE SOFTWARE USER 0.1 A bit of history 0.2 The meaning of "copyright" 0.3 The meaning of "public domain" 0.4 A hypothetical software purchase 0.5 - 0.6 Can you use copyrighted software? 0.7 Can you make a backup copy? 0.8 Licenses may change the rules 0.9 Can you modify the program? 0.10 Can you break the copy protection scheme? 0.11 Summary PART TWO: COPYRIGHT SOUNDS NEAT -- HOW DO I GET ONE? OR, HOW DO I KNOW IF THIS PROGRAM IS COPYRIGHTED? 0.12.1 How do you get a copyright? 0.12.2 How do you lose a copyright? 0.12.3 How do you waste a stamp? 0.12.4 Do you have to register? 0.13 How copyright comes into existence 0.14 - 0.17 The copyright notice 0.18 Advantages of registration 0.19 A test to see if you understand this article PART THREE: WHO OWNS THE PROGRAM YOU WROTE? 0.20 Introduction 0.21 - 0.22 Programs written as an employee 0.23 - 0.25 Programs written as a contractor PART FOUR: A BRIEF WORD ABOUT LICENSES 0.26 Why a license? 0.27 Is it valid? PART FIVE: I HAVE A NEAT IDEA. CAN I TRADEMARK IT? WHAT ABOUT A PATENT? 0.28 Trademark law explained 0.29 Patent law 0.39 CONCLUSION: Where to find me for more info. PART ONE: THE MEANING OF COPYRIGHT FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE SOFTWARE USER 0.1 If you're not interested in history, you can skip this paragraph. "Modern" copyright law first came into existence in 1570, by an act of Parliament called the Statute of Anne. Like most laws, it hasn't changed much since. It was written with books and pictures in mind. Parliament, lacking the foresight to predict the success of the Intel and IBM corporations, failed to consider the issue of copyrighting computer programs. At first, courts questioned whether programs could be copyrighted at all. The problem was that judges couldn't read the programs and they figured the Copyright Law was only meant to apply to things humans (which arguably includes judges) could read without the aid of a machine. I saw some mythical discussion about that in some of the net.legal drivel. Let's lay that to rest: programs are copyrightable as long as there is even a minimal amount of creativity. The issue was laid to rest with the Software Act of 1980. That Act modified the Copyright Act (which is a Federal law by the way), in such a way as to make it clear that programs are copyrightable. The few exceptions to this rule will rarely concern anyone. The next question to arise was whether a program was copyrightable if it was stored in ROM rather than on paper. The decision in the Apple v. Franklin case laid that to rest: it is. 0.2 Now, what is copyright? As it is commonly understood, it is the right to make copies of something -- or to put it the other way around, it is the right to prohibit other people from making copies. This is known as an exclusive right -- the exclusive right to "reproduce," in the biological language of the Copyright Act -- and what most people don't know is that copyright involves not one, not two, but five exclusive rights. These are (1) the exclusive right to make copies, (2) the exclusive right to distribute copies to the public, (3) the exclusive right to prepare "derivative works" (I'll explain, just keep reading), (4) the exclusive right to perform the work in public (this mainly applies to plays, dances and the like, but it could apply to software), and (5) the exclusive right to display the work in public (such as showing a film). 0.3 Before we go any further, what is public domain? I saw some discussion on the net about public domain software being copyrighted. Nonsense. The phrase "public domain," when used correctly, means the absence of copyright protection. It means you can copy public domain software to your heart's content. It means that the author has none of the exclusive rights listed above. If someone uses the phrase "public domain" to refer to "freeware" (software which is copyrighted but is distributed without advance payment but with a request for a donation), he or she is using the term incorrectly. Public domain means no copyright -- no exclusive rights. 0.4 Let's look at those exclusive rights from the viewpoint of someone who has legitimately purchased a single copy of a copyrighted computer program. For the moment, we'll have to ignore the fact that the program is supposedly licensed, because the license changes things. I'll explain that later. For now, assume you went to Fred's Diner and Software Mart and bought a dozen eggs, cat food and a word processing program. And for now, assume the program is copyrighted. 0.5 What can you do with this copyrighted software? Let's start with the obvious: can you use it on your powerful Timex PC? Is this a joke? No. Prior to 1980, my answer might have been No, you can't use it! And people actually pay me for advice like that! Well, think: you take the program into RAM. What have you just done? You've made a copy in RAM -- in legalese, you've reproduced the work, in violation of the copyright owner's exclusive right to reproduce. (I better clarify something here: the copyright owner is the person or company whose name appears in the copyright notice on the box, or the disk or the first screen or wherever. It may be the person who wrote the program, or it may be his boss, or it may be a publishing company that bought the rights to the program. But in any case, it's not you. When you buy a copy of the program, you do not become the copyright owner. You just own one copy.) 0.6 Anyway, loading the program into RAM means making a copy. The Software Act of 1980 addressed this absurdity by allowing you to make a copy if the copy "is created as an essential step in the utilization of the computer program in conjunction with a machine and ... is used in no other manner ... ." By the way, somebody tell me what "a machine" means. If you connect 5 PC's on a network is that "a machine" or several machines? A related question is whether or not running software on a network constitutes a performance. The copyright owner has the exclusive right to do that, remember? 0.7 OK, so you bought this copyrighted program and you loaded it into RAM or onto a hard disk without the FBI knocking on your door. Now can you make a backup copy? YES. The Software Act also provided that you can make a backup copy, provided that it "is for archival purposes only ... ." What you cannot do, however, is give the archive copy to your friend so that you and your pal both got the program for the price of one. That violates the copyright owner's exclusive right to distribute copies to the public. Get it? You can, on the other hand, give both your original and backup to your friend -- or sell it to him, or lend it to him, as long as you don't retain a copy of the program you are selling. Although the copyright owner has the exclusive right to distribute (sell) copies of the program, that right only applies to the first sale of any particular copy. By analogy, if you buy a copyrighted book, you are free to sell your book to a friend. The copyright owner does not have the right to control resales. 0.8 At this point, let me remind you that we have assumed that the program you got at the store was sold to you, not licensed to you. Licenses may change the rules. 0.9 Now, you're a clever programmer, and you know the program could run faster with some modifications. You could also add graphics and an interactive mode and lots of other stuff. What does copyright law say about your plans? Well... several different things, actually. First, recall that the copyright owner has the exclusive right to make derivative works. A derivative work is a work based on one or more preexisting works. It's easy to recognize derivative works when you think about music or books. If a book is copyrighted, derivative works could include a screenplay, an abridged edition, or a translation into another language. Derivative works of songs might be new arrangements (like the jazz version of Love Potion Number 9), a movie soundtrack, or a written transcription, or a "long version," (such as the fifteen minute version of "Wipe Out" with an extended drum solo for dance parties). In my opinion, you are making a derivative work when you take the store-bought word processor and modify it to perform differently. The same would be true if you "translated" a COBOL program into BASIC. Those are copyright infringements -- you've horned in on the copyright owner's exclusive right to make derivative works. There is, however, some breathing room. The Software Act generously allows you to "adapt" the code if the adaptation "is created as an essential step in the utilization of the computer program in conjunction with a machine ..." For example, you might have to modify the code to make it compatible with your machine. 0.10 Moving right along, let's assume your store-bought program is copy protected, and you'd really like to make a backup copy. You know this nine-year-old whiz who can crack any copy-protection scheme faster than you can rearrange a Rubix cube. Is there a copyright violation if he succeeds? There's room to argue here. When you try to figure out if something is an infringement, ask yourself, what exclusive right am I violating? In this case, not the right to make copies, and not the right to distribute copies. Public performance and display have no relevance. So the key question is whether you are making a "derivative work." My answer to that question is, "I doubt it." On the other hand, I also doubt that breaking the protection scheme was "an essential step" in using the program in conjunction with a machine. It might be a "fair use," but that will have to wait for another article. Anyone interested in stretching the limits of the "fair use" defense should read the Sony "Betamax" case. 0.11 Let me summarize. Copyright means the copyright owner has the exclusive right to do certain things. Copyright infringement means you did one of those exclusive things (unless you did it within the limits of the Software Act, i.e., as an essential step...). 0.12 PART TWO: COPYRIGHT SOUNDS NEAT -- HOW DO I GET ONE? OR, HOW DO I KNOW IF THIS PROGRAM IS COPYRIGHTED? 0.12.1 If you've written an original program, what do you have to do to get a copyright? Nothing. You already have one. 0.12.2 If you've written an original program, what do you have to do to lose your copyright protection? Give copies away without the copyright notice. 0.12.3 If you mail the program to yourself in a sealed envelope, what have you accomplished? You've wasted a stamp and an envelope and burdened the postal system unnecessarily. 0.12.4 Do you have to register your program with the U.S. Copyright Office? No, but it's a damn good idea. 0.13 Copyright protection (meaning the five exclusive rights) comes into existence the moment you "fix" your program in a "tangible medium." That means write it down, or store it on a floppy disk, or do something similar. Registration is optional. The one thing you must do, however, is protect your copyright by including a copyright notice on every copy of every program you sell, give away, lend out, etc. If you don't, someone who happens across your program with no notice on it can safely assume that it is in the public domain (unless he actually knows that it is not). 0.14 The copyright notice has three parts. The first can be either a c with a circle around it, or the word "copyright" or the abbreviation "Copr." The c with a circle around it is preferable, because it is recognized around the world; the others are not. That's incredibly important. Countries around the world have agreed to recognize and uphold each others' copyrights, but this world-wide protection requires the use of the c in a circle. On disk labels and program packaging, use the encircled c. Unfortunately, computers don't draw small circles well, so programmers have resorted to a c in parentheses: (c). Too bad. That has no legal meaning. When you put your notice in the code and on the screen, use "Copyright" or "Copr." if you can't make a circle. 0.15 The second part of the notice is the "year of first publication of the work." "Publication" doesn't mean distribution by Osborne Publishing Co. It means distribution of copies of the program to the public "by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending." So when you start handing out or selling copies of your precious code, you are publishing. Publication also takes place when you merely OFFER to distribute copies to a group for further distribution. Your notice must include the year that you first did so. 0.16 The third part of the notice is the name of the owner of the copyright. Hopefully, that's you, in which case your last name will do. If your company owns the program -- a legal issue which I will address later in this article -- the company name is appropriate. 0.17 Where do you put the notice? The general idea is to put it where people are likely to see it. Specifically, if you're distributing a human-readable code listing, put it on the first page in the first few lines of code, and hard code it so that it appears on the title screen, or at sign-off, or continuously. If you're distributing machine-readable versions only, hard code it. As an extra precaution, you should also place the notice on the gummed disk label or in some other fashion permanently attached to the storage medium. 0.18 Now, why register the program? If no one ever rips off your program, you won't care much about registration. If someone does rip it off, you'll kick yourself for not having registered it. The reason is that if the program is registered before the infringement takes place, you can recover some big bucks from the infringer, called statutory damages, and the court can order the infringer to pay your attorneys fees. Registration only costs $10.00, and it's easy to do yourself. The only potential disadvantage is the requirement that you deposit the first and last 25 pages of your source code, which can be inspected (but not copied) by members of the public. 0.19 Now, someone tell me this: is this article copyrighted? Can you print it? 0.20 PART THREE: WHO OWNS THE PROGRAM YOU WROTE? The starting point of this analysis is that if you wrote the program, you are the author, and copyright belongs to the author. HOWEVER, that can change instantly. There are two common ways for your ownership to shift to someone else: first, your program might be a "work for hire." Second, you might sell or assign your "rights" in the program, which for our purposes means the copyright. 0.21 Most of the programs which you write at work, if not all of them, belong to your employer. That's because a program prepared by an employee within the scope of his or her employment is a "work for hire," and the employer is considered the "author." This is more or less automatic if you are an employee -- no written agreement is necessary to make your employer the copyright owner. By contrast, if you can convince your employer to let you be the copyright owner, you must have that agreement in writing. 0.22 By the way, before you give up hope of owning the copyright to the program you wrote at work, figure out if you are really an employee. That is actually a complex legal question, but I can tell you now that just because your boss says you are an employee doesn't mean that it's so. And remember that if you created the program outside the "scope" of your job, the program is not a "work for hire." Finally, in California and probably elsewhere, the state labor law provides that employees own products they create on their own time, using their own tools and materials. Employment contracts which attempt to make the employer the owner of those off-the-job "inventions" are void, at least in sunny California. 0.23 Wait a minute: I'm an independent contractor to Company X, not an employee. I come and go as I please, get paid by the hour with no tax withheld, and was retained to complete a specific project. I frequently work at home with my own equipment. Is the program I'm writing a "work for hire," owned by the Company? Maybe, maybe not. In California, this area is full of landmines for employers, and gold for contractors. 0.24 A contractor's program is not a "work for hire," and is not owned by the company, unless (1) there is a written agreement between the company and the contractor which says that it is, and (2) the work is a "commissioned work." A "commissioned work" is one of the following: (a) a contribution to a "collective work," (b) an audiovisual work (like a movie, and maybe like a video game), (c) a translation, (d) a compilation, (e) an instructional text, (f) a test or answer to a test, or (g) an atlas. I know you must be tired of definitions, but this is what the real legal world is made of. An example of a collective work is a book of poetry, with poems contributed by various authors. A piece of code which is incorporated into a large program isn't a contribution to a collective work, but a stand-alone program which is packaged and sold with other stand-alone programs could be. 0.25 So where are we? If you are a contract programmer, not an employee, and your program is a "commissioned work," and you have a written agreement that says that the program is a "work for hire" owned by the greedy company, who owns the program? That's right, the company. But guess what? In California and elsewhere the company just became your employer! This means that the company must now provide worker's compensation benefits for you AND UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE. 0.26 PART FOUR: A BRIEF WORD ABOUT LICENSES. When you get software at the local five and dime, the manufacturer claims that you have a license to use that copy of the program. The reason for this is that the manufacturer wants to place more restrictions on your use of the program than copyright law places. For example, licenses typically say you can only use the program on a single designated CPU. Nothing in the copyright law says that. Some licenses say you cannot make an archive copy. The copyright law says you can, remember? But if the license is a valid license, now you can't. You can sell or give away your copy of a program if you purchased it, right? That's permitted by copyright law, but the license may prohibit it. The more restrictive terms of the license will apply instead of the more liberal copyright rules. 0.27 Is the license valid? This is hotly debated among lawyers. (What isn't? We'll argue about the time of day.) A few states have passed or will soon pass laws declaring that they are valid. A few will go the other way. Federal legislation is unlikely. My argument is that at the consumer level, the license is not binding because there is no true negotiation (unless a state law says it is binding), but hey -- that's just an argument and I'm not saying that that's the law. In any case, I think businesses which buy software will be treated differently in court than consumers. Businesses should read those licenses and negotiate with the manufacturer if the terms are unacceptable. 0.28 FINALLY, PART FIVE: I HAVE A NEAT IDEA. CAN I TRADEMARK IT? WHAT ABOUT PATENT? Sorry, no luck. Trademark law protects names: names of products and names of services. (Note that I did not say names of companies. Company names are not trademarkable.) If you buy a program that has a trademarked name, all that means is that you can't sell your own similar program under the same name. It has nothing to do with copying the program. 0.29 Patent law can apply to computer programs, but it seldom does. The main reasons it seldom applies are practical: the patent process is too slow and too expensive to do much good in the software world. There are also considerable legal hurdles to overcome in order to obtain a patent. If, by chance, a program is patented, the patent owner has the exclusive right to make, use or sell it for 17 years. 0.30 CONCLUSION: I know this is a long article, but believe it or not I just scratched the surface. Hopefully, you'll find this information useful, and you'll stop passing along myths about copyright law. If anyone needs more information, I can be reached at (415) 932-4828, or by mail at 1225 Alpine Road, Suite 200, Walnut Creek, CA 94596. Sorry, but I do not usually have access to the network, so you can't reach me there. Thank you. JORDAN J. BRESLOW -- Lisa Breslow (415) 939-2400 x2418 Varian Instruments 2700 Mitchell Dr. Walnut Creek, Ca. 94598 Press ! Press for next or type CHOICES !1 COMPUSERVE INFORMATION SERVICE OFFICIAL STATEMENT ON COPYRIGHT POLICY October 1986 [Note: The following statement currently is available on CompuServe. It appears to have been produced in response to recent questions and criticism concerning certain ambiguities in CompuServe's policy toward "public domain" software uploads. The following text may be obtained on CompuServe by entering GO COPYRIGHT at any ! prompt.] The CompuServe Information Service provides more than 400 online products covering thousands of subject areas to its more than 300,000 subscribers. Material offered on the CompuServe Information Service originates with a wide variety of sources, ranging from creative public domain software programs uploaded by subscribers to multi-faceted databases provided by large corporations. The following information will address some commonly-asked questions about copyright and ownership of material, particularly as it relates to public domain information and shareware programs. --WHAT IS A COMPILATION COPYRIGHT? CompuServe has copyrighted the contents of the CompuServe Information Service as a compilation copyright, just as many magazines and newspapers reserve such a copyright on the contents of their publications. This copyright is held in accordance with the 1976 Copyright Act of the United States. A compilation copyright is granted when an organization collects information in a lawful way, adds value to it, and offers it to others. In this case, the CompuServe Information Service is a value-added product; CompuServe Incorporated has committed substantial financial resources to collecting more than 400 databases and offering them in an organized, structured way to a defined user base through a nationwide telecommunications network. The compilation copyright is intended to protect that substantial investment from unauthorized exploitation. This does NOT mean that CompuServe assumes ownership of individual programs and databases provided to the system by subscribers or information providers. --IF I UPLOAD A SOFTWARE PROGRAM I'VE DEVELOPED TO COMPUSERVE, DO I STILL RETAIN OWNERSHIP OF THE PROGRAM? Yes, you do. CompuServe's compilation copyright does NOT supersede individual ownership rights or copyrights to any of the material furnished to the Service by subscribers or information providers. For example, a subscriber who creates a program and uploads it to a CompuServe forum data library STILL OWNS that program, and may upload it to other information services and bulletin board systems. It should be noted, however, that CompuServe cannot grant any redistribution rights for materials copyrighted by the author, unless specifically authorized to do so, CompuServe does not own the material or the copyright. These rights must be obtained directly from the author. --WHAT IS COMPUSERVE'S STANCE TOWARD COPYRIGHTED, PUBLIC DOMAIN, AND SHAREWARE PROGRAMS? Each of these types of property have special characteristics, and deserves separate explanation: COPYRIGHT. CompuServe does not allow copyrighted material to be placed on the CompuServe Information Service without the author's permission. Only the owner(s) or persons they specifically authorize may upload copyrighted material to the Service. Any subscriber may download copyrighted material for their own use. Any subscriber may also non-commercially redistribute a copyrighted program with the expressed permission of the owner or authorized person. Permission must be specified in the document, on the Service, or must be obtained directly from the author. PUBLIC DOMAIN. Any subscriber may upload public domain programs to the Service. Any subscriber may download public domain programs for their own use or non-commercially redistribute a public domain program. SHAREWARE. Only the owner or an authorized person may upload shareware programs. Any subscriber may download shareware programs for their own use, subject to the terms provided by the owner. Any subscriber may non-commercially redistribute a shareware program subject to the provided terms explicitly displayed in the software itself, or with permission of the owner or authorized person. See below for more information about redistribution guidelines. --AS A COMPUSERVE SUBSCRIBER, CAN I DOWNLOAD PUBLIC DOMAIN INFORMATION AND SHAREWARE PROGRAMS FOR MY OWN USE FROM COMPUSERVE FORUM DATA LIBRARIES? Yes, you can. Public domain information and shareware programs are uploaded to CompuServe data libraries by their authors for use by other CompuServe subscribers. --MAY I DOWNLOAD PROGRAMS FROM COMPUSERVE FORUM DATA LIBRARIES AND SHARE THEM WITH A FRIEND, OR UPLOAD THEM TO ANOTHER BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM? In keeping with the spirit of the development of public domain information and shareware, it is not CompuServe's current policy to prevent casual redistribution of this type of information -- this is low volume and low frequency use or redistribution of information where no commercialism is involved. This means that a customer may download a file and share it with others for no commercial gain -- either via a bulletin board service, diskette, or other means. A subscriber may not, however, download a large number of files for redistribution via any means, nor is it acceptable for a subscriber to update another bulletin board regularly with files obtained from CompuServe. It's important to note that CompuServe cannot grant redistribution rights for programs clearly copyrighted by the author, unless specifically authorized to do so. Such permission must be obtained directly from the author of the program. --MAY I DOWNLOAD AND RESELL A PROGRAM FROM A COMPUSERVE FORUM DATA LIBRARY? Commercial exploitation of material contained on the CompuServe Information Service is specifically prohibited by the CompuServe Service agreement, to which each subscriber agrees before being permitted to access the Service. Therefore, subscribers cannot lawfully download and redistribute public information or shareware programs for personal gain. In addition, mass redistribution of public domain information or shareware is also prohibited. Mass distribution is defined as high frequency and/or high volume transfers. --WHAT ARE THE PENALTIES FOR VIOLATING THE COMPILATION COPYRIGHT OR SERVICE AGREEMENT PROVISIONS? When a situation involving exploitation is brought to CompuServe's attention, we investigate and, if warranted, remind the violator of the terms of the Service Agreement. If subsequent violations are reported, access to the CompuServe Information Service may be terminated for the violator and, in extreme cases, a letter is sent from our legal counsel asking that he or she cease and desist, or risk further legal action. This is done as a positive step to protect the value and use of the material for CompuServe Information Service subscribers, and to discourage unauthorized redistribution of that material. Thank you for using CompuServe! [One user's commentary: From the above, it appears that CompuServe is grappling with finding some way to protect its investment in establishing and maintaining a library of user-supported materials. The recent adoption of a policy of not charging for upload time is a two-edged sword: it is both a boon to the subscriber who goes to the trouble of uploading materials to CompuServe and a clear way for CompuServe to show that it has "paid" some consideration for the the material. However, nothing CompuServe may do can allow it to gather in rights which have been scattered to the public domain. As a fundamental concept of intellectual property law, once something is placed within the public domain, even the original author cannot reclaim it. CompuServe would appear to be justified in its stance that it holds a compilation copyright on its contents as a whole. It would be difficult to argue with this position because were it not the case, there would be little or no incentive for CompuServe to offer the services which it does. Similarly, a number of sysops of hobbyist bulletin boards (FIDOs, etc.) have clearly stated policies saying that they do not favor or permit massive downloadings of files on their systems. CompuServe's concern appear to revolve around a need and desire to protect its contents from being "cloned" onto a competing commercial or non-commercial system. Unfortunately, the line between casual redistribution and "mass redistribution" or "updating another bulletin board regularly" is both ill-defined and subjective. The CompuServe subscriber agreement is a much stronger protection for CompuServe than anything in copyright law. It gives CompuServe the simple right to suspend the subscription of anyone whom it believes is using its services in an undesirable manner. End of story. It is unlikely that CompuServe or any other service, be it commercial or hobbyist supported, will survive very long unless it adds some perceived value for its users. CompuServe's value lies in its providing a national network, extensive libraries (both public domain and proprietary), and a multi-user system available at all hours. While the hobbyist bulletin boards, including FIDO and FIDO echomail, provide similar services, they serve different (even if overlapping) user communities. Carl Neiburger, professional journalist and editor of the Silicon Valley Rainbow newsletter, proposes a simple way in which anyone uploading material to CompuServe can protect his or her interest in the ownership and/or public domain status of the material being uploaded: "On the material I have uploaded to CompuServe so far, I have chosen one of these options: 1) Omitting any copyright, making it automatically public domain. As I understand it, CompuServe acknowledges that public domain is public domain and that's that. 2) Attaching a copyright that, in effect, asserts authorship but no financial control, i.e. "Free license is granted for non-commercial use." That amounts to saying, "It's mine, but I'm giving it away and you can give it away (but not sell it), too." The idea is to allow broad distribution of these programs, and I hope that CompuServe accepts this desire and does not interfere with it. Other people may and do upload software with their own license restrictions. It seems to me that CompuServe's policy on allowing downloading and distribution should be governed by these licenses rather than the company's best guess. At the same time, of course, authors are obliged to be realistic and up front about their licenses and expectations, which I think they are. I have seen, "If you like this program, send me $10'; I haven't seen, "You just downloaded my program; send me $200." In conclusion, it appears that CompuServe's only intent at the moment is to restrict the wholesale downloading of materials on its service for the specific purpose of placing those materials in their collective entirety on a competing commercial or non-commercial service. CompuServe's only practical means to prevent this is to refuse the subscription of anyone who engages in this practice. Authors of public domain and/or shareware materials who desire additional assurances may place appropriate copyright notices on their materials and/or upload their materials to multiple commercial and non-commercial services thus preventing the vesting of copyright ownership or control in CompuServe.