Last update: December 16, 1995 This is the FAQ for rec.crafts.winemaking. If you have any additions, deletions, corrections, comments, questions or the like, please direct them to r.c.w. or Don Buchan at malak@cam.org Copyright notice: Copyright (c) 1995 by Don Buchan, all rights reserved. This FAQ may be distributed to any USENET newsgroup, on-line service, BBS or any other means, electronic or physical (such as, but not limited to, floppy diskettes and printouts) as long as: A) it is distributed in its entirety, B) no fee is charged to anyone: i) downloading this file beyond nominal online fees, or ii) receiving the information beyond nominal format charges, C) it is not distributed for financial gain. To be included in commercial collections or compilations (except online services as allowed above), express permission from Don Buchan (malak@cam.org) must be obtained. Academic or professional use and accuracy: In the case of academic use, follow the guidelines set out at your institution for referencing electronic texts, provided that my name, Don Buchan, and email ID, malak@cam.org, are referenced as editor/compilor. I suggest as title "FAQ List for Usenet Usegroup rec.crafts.winemaking". I am not an oenologist, nor is this text guaranteed to be 100% accurate. No liability or warranty, express or implied, is assumed by the editor or contributors. If you see an error, please point it out to me. While the text does treat the actual procedures of making wine to varying degrees, it is assumed that you already have a basic knowledge of how to make wine. If you don't, request the primers mentioned in the NET RESOURCES posting for wine & winemaking. Spelling conventions & editing: The editor has tried to edit for brevity in some cases, therefore contributions may be shorter than submitted or as originally posted in the newsgroup. As well, the word "I" when used is the contributor, not necessarily the editor. Text in {} is the original question. Further, British (and Canadian) spelling conventions are used. Please don't point out "f" instead of "ph" or "gh", that there's no "u" in words, or it's "s" instead of "z". Measurement conventions: An attempt has been made to include imperial, American and metric measurments. Therefore when a reference to a gallon is made, it will either be identified as an imperial or American gallon, and its equivalent in the other size is made as well in litres. GENERAL: G01. Newsgroup Charter G02. Definitions G03. How is wine made? G04. Yeast G05. Possible ingredients G06. BTW, can I use jam? G07. The recipe calls for tannin. What's the conversion dry to liquid? G08. What equipment is required? G09. Sucrose vs. corn sugar G10. Kits vs. Grapes or Fruit G11. What are the usual sizes used in home winemaking? G12. Barrels G13. Sanitation G14. Procedure G15. Why am I adding the bentonite at the beginning? G16. Egg white clearing G17. Higher alcohol levels G18. Sparkling your wine G19. Ice wine G20. Different kinds of fermentation used in winemaking G21. Acid balance G22. Chillproofing G23. Do all wines contain sulphites? G24. How much sulphite is needed? G25. Topping up your wine G26. How to know when a wine is ready to drink G27. Vinometers G28. How to measure alcohol levels in your wine G29. What's the best paper and adhesive to use for labels? G30. Bottles & Corks G31. How about distilling my wine? G32. What are good references for winemaking? TROUBLESHOOTING: T01. I didn't rehydrate my yeast. Is that bad? T02. Why hasn't my wine started bubbling yet? T03. My wine stopped bubbling. What's wrong? T04. Foaming problems T05. My wine just won't clear. Why not? T06. My fined and filtered wine is hazy. What's wrong? T07. How do I get rid of the strong paper taste in filtered wine? T08. The wine I bottled is fizzy. Why? T09. Ornery bottle labels T10. My wine smells bad. What happened? T11. I've got vinegar. Any hope? T12. Mycoderma (Flowers of Wine) T13. I rinsed with cold water after sulphiting. Is that bad? T14. I need to top up. How do I do it? CREDITS NET RESOURCES -- Can be found in the seperate posting NET RESOURCES for wine & winemaking. ******* GENERAL ******* G01. NEWSGROUP CHARTER Name: rec.crafts.winemaking Moderation status: unmoderated Rec.crafts.winemaking will be a news group dedicated to the discussion of the process, recipes, tips, storage, techniques and general exchange of lore on the process, methods and history of wine making. The above list is not considered exhaustive, and if a discussion is of interest to wine makers it may be deemed as appropriate. This group is to be general enough to encompass both traditional grape wines as well as wines which are generally described as country wines, sparkling wines, and champagnes. In general, the appropriateness of a particular beverage will be determined by the process involved in its making. Essentially, if the process used is that of wine making, then the discussion is considered appropriate. This may include such beverages as cider or mead. It is recognized that there are topics which are of interest to both wine makers and brewers, and posting or cross posting of such topics is considered both appropriate and desirable. Personal stories and experiences shall be welcome as long as they pertain to the craft of wine making. G02. DEFINITIONS Not all these words appear elsewhere in this FAQ; but those that don't are still useful or at least interesting. Acid Blend: A blend of (usually) tartaric and malic acids in crystal form. Bracket (braggot): An alcoholic beverage made with malt and honey; thus it bridges the gap between mead and ale. Bentonite: A type of finely ground clay that is used as a clarifying agent. It is used at varying stages of the process, including at the beginning to provide something to which yeast can attach themselves to improve growth and help clear out solids from the primary fermentation. Campden Tablets: Tablets of a standard amount of compressed sulphite. Carboy: A container of five imperial gallons. It is the next commonly used size smaller than a demijohn. Carboys are made out of glass or plastic and, like a big bottle, have a constricted neck. Carbonic Maceration: Fermentation of whole grapes, then pressing before racking the wine to secondary. Clearing: Clearing is getting the wine to go clear by either fining, repeated racking or both. Cider: Fermented apple juice. Cyser: A mead with apple juice added (and thus you might consider it either an apple melomel or a cider with honey). Demijohn: A container identical in function and similar in shape to a carboy. They typically hold 25 to 64 litres, about 5 to 14 imperial gallons, though come in various sizes as small as 1 imperial gallon. Fermentation: The anaerobic (no oxygen) digestion of various microflora and microfauna. In our case, yeast are anaerobically digesting sugar, water and nutrients to produce alcohol. Fining: Fining is the use of some agent that will collect the fine particles (cloudiness) out of the wine and then fall to the bottom so that clear wine can be racked off the top. These substances are usually isinglass (ground fishbladders) or a gelatin substance, but also include bentonite (a type of clay) and various cationic and anionic polymers. Hydrometer: A glass bulb with a weight in the bulb, a narrow stick like end with a scale inside it that is used to measure properties such as liquid density, and in the case of fermentation, usually other scales such as Brix, Balling and potential alcohol. Kit: A package containing juice concentrate and other ingredients used to make wine. Add water and follow the instructions in the box. Format varies quite a bit: Some kits are a can of concentrate (add your own sugar, yeast, some other ingredients); some are 5kg to 7kg of concentrate in a bag, complete with everything needed either in the concentrate or seperately in the box, except water; others are 15 litres of concentrated juice you bring up to 23 litres. There are even packets of dehydrated juice crystals in which you add all the water and sugar. Sometimes the concentrate is actually a hybrid with the concentrated juices of more than one kind of grape (California requires at 51% of a given grape to be present to call it that variety, for instance. Other areas require 75%.) Quality is discussed in section G10. KITS VS. GRAPES OR FRUIT. Lees: The solids that have fallen to the bottom of your fermentation vessel. Among much else, they contain live and dead yeast. Mead: An alcoholic beverage made by the fermentation of honey and water. Many ingredients can be added to the basic recipe. Melomel: A mead with fruit or fruit juices added. Metheglin: A mead with herbs and/or spices added. Must: Unfermented wine (ie. grape juice). Pectins: Pectins are large binding protein molecules that don't clear properly. They're important in jam making, but annoying and undesireable in winemaking. Pectic Enzyme: Pectic enzymes break up pectin to make smaller molecules that clear more easily. Primary Fermentation: The stage during which most fermentation takes place, usually in a covered widemouthed vessel. Pyment: Honey and grape juice fermented together. This can be either a fermented combination (as a melomel) or grape wine to which honey is added after it is finished. (Current use of the term is inconsistent.) Racking: Transferring by siphoning the clear wine/mead off the top of a vessel into another closed vessel without transferring the lees at the bottom of the first vessel. Secondary Fermentation: The stage during which fermentation is completed, usually in a closed vessel such as a carboy. This period commonly refers to the completion of sugar fermentation by yeast, but also refers to the time when other fermentations, particularly malolactic fermentation (a bacterial fermentation which converts malic acid to lactic acid) takes place. See section G20. DIFFERENT KINDS OF FERMENTATION USED IN WINEMAKING. sg: Specific gravity. The reading taken from your hydrometer that measures the relative density of your must/wine to water. Rarely will the reading go above 1.100 as this makes it very difficult for yeast to work and this will produce a wine with 14% alcohol, getting in the area that yeast have difficulty tolerating. Sorbate: Potassium sorbate. A substance that is noxious to yeasts and as such is used as a stabilizer. It should be noted that sorbate's effectiveness depends on low yeast counts in the wine; if it's high, it will be inneffective. Clear your wine properly, and ferment out to sg 1.000 or less. Sulphite (or sulphate): Referring to sodium metabisulphite or potassium metabisulphite. A substance that is noxious to many spoilage microorganisms and wild yeasts and as such is used as a microbiological and oxidative inhibitor and stabilizer. It should be noted that sulphite's effectiveness depends on low organism counts in the wine; if it's high, it will be inneffective. Clear your wine properly and ferment out to sg 1.000 or less. Chemically, sulphite is S03(-4) while sulphate is SO4(-6); the desired form in winemaking is sulphite, however, the two words are often used (or confused) interchangeably. Since sulphate is oxidized sulphite (ie. sulphite reacts with oxygen in the air), sulphite also prevents unwanted browning in wine; further, too much sulphate in a wine will cause bitterness. Therefore as a rule avoid letting your wine contact the air as much as possible. Vapour lock: A simple device that looks like a wide letter 'S' laying on its side (this is the standard form, there are others). It is filled with water (enough that there is no way for air or contaminants to flow through it) while allowing the pressure from the fermentation to push out. These are also known as fermentation locks and air locks. Wine: The fermented juice of fruits having an alcohol content of 7% to 14% (though higher levels are possible). Wort: Unfermented beer. G03. HOW IS WINE MADE? Essentially, wine is the product of fermented fruit juice, usually grapes. Generally, it has an alcoholic content of 7% to 14%. Further, this alcoholic content is only derived by fermentation, ie. no distillation, and as a general rule distilled products are not added to fortify the wine. The process of fermenting is basically feeding sugars and nutrients to yeast, which then produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. This process goes on until either all the sugar is gone or the yeast can no longer tolerate the alcoholic content of the wine. Different yeasts produce different results, and have different tolerance levels. The fruit is crushed to give free-running juice; red wines are usually fermented with the skins to maximize colour and tannin extraction. The must is sanitized, usually with sulphite, and is innoculated with a domesticated yeast; occasionally, the must is allowed to ferment from the wild yeasts found on grapeskins, though this method can be unreliable and may allow for the growth of undesireable bacteria. The wine is racked part way through the process to a closed vessel to complete fermentation. This last racking is done in order to avoid contamination and oxydation that would be possible during the slow fermentation of this period (and therefore low production of a CO2 blanket over the wine to protect it from such). The wine may or may not be stabilized to prevent further fermentation, as well as allowed to clear either naturally or with the aid of fining agents, and may be further racked off the lees to avoid foul smells and tastes from the lees. The wine may be bulk aged before filtering and bottling. G04. YEAST Here's a list of different kinds of yeast often used with different kinds of wine. Ask your dealer for further recommendations. Epernay 2 Slow fermenter; leaves a delicate, perfumey aroma without tropical overtones of UCD 594, and a smooth, fruity flavour. Temperature should be kept cool to preserve fruitiness. Good for whites and fruits. May have trouble going to dryness if used with too-cold or nutrient poor wines (like Chardonnay). Sometimes used for Pinot Noir. Foams very little. California Champagne, UCD 505 Flocculates superbly, leaving large chunks if left to settle undisturbed. White wines have a simple, clean, yeasty quality similar to champagne. Recommended for sparkling wines and very aromatic fruits. Fermivin Very fast and vigourous fermenter. Good for stuck fermentations. Never use if you want to leave some residual sugar. Provides clean, varietal wines. Often used for Cabernet. Montrachet Can produce varied results. When good, it's very, very good. When bad, it's very, very bad. Never use if fruit has been recently dusted with sulphur. Has a tendency to product H2S. Starts fast, attaining a very high temperature, then slows and sometimes sticks if stressed. Very good for reds and full bodied whites that need a hot fermentation. Flavours are full and complex and intense in colour. Beaujolais Intended for carbonic maceration of fresh, fruity red wine. Ferments strongly but leaves a grapey sort of fruitiness. Pasteur Champagne An all purpose white wine yeast sometimes used for reds as well. Usually a fast, complete fermentation. Do not use for slow fermentations needing residual sugar. Flavours are clean and pleasant while body and complexity are not emphasized. Sometimes used for stuck fermentations. Despite the name, it is not used for sparkling wines. Prise de Mousse Ferments evenly and usually goes to completion. Clean, slightly yeasty aroma does not interfere with varietal flavours. Used for both reds and whites. Assmanshausen Slow fermentation rate with an austere fruitiness. Wines are spicy, complex, with medium body and dark colour. Often preferred for Pinot Noir. Sometimes needs balancing with oak ageing. Beerenauslese Used for grapes infected with botrytis. It intensifies the apricot/honey flavours produced by the mould. Chanson Ferments evenly, low H2S production, floculates well, makes compact lees. Flavours are refined and elegant with emphasis on varietal fruit. Often used for Chardonnay. Prone to sticking in nutrient- poor musts. Etoile Usually used as a tirage yeast but could be used for innoculating the cuvee in sparkling wines as well. Has subdued yeastiness with crispness. Pasteur Red Very popular for reds. Fast, strong fermenter used for full bodied reds. Yields wines that are complex with cabernet style concentration of fruit and colour. Pasteur White Intended for dry, crisp, white wines. The yeast provides complexity instead of fruitiness emphasizing acidity. Sensitive to sudden chilling. Foams spectacularly. Steinberg Produces a distinctive, flowery, complex combination of scents when fermented cool. Slows with sudden chilling but usually completes. Good for riesling and other german style wines. UCD 594 Starts very very slowly and ferments evenly. Fermentation temperature does not change much nor is activity that apparent. Provides a highly aromatic character called 'fruit salad' or tropical flavour. Not generally used in reds. Sensitive to SO2. May produce excess H2S if sulphur dust is on the fruit. Some suggestions (depending on styles) White wines Chardonnay (regular) Chanson, Prise de Mousse Chardonnay (heavy) Montrachet Chenin Blanc UCD 594, Epernay 2 Gewurztraminer & Riesling (young/fresh) Epernay 2 Gewurztraminer & Riesling (complex) Steinberg Muscat UCD 594 or any white wine Sauvignon Blanc Chanson, Pasteur White, Prise de Mousse Semillon Chanson, Pasteur Champagne Red Wines Cabernet (regular) Pasteur Red Cabernet (other) Pasteur Champagne, Montrachet, Prise de Mousse Merlot Pasteur Red, Assmanshausen Merlot (for blending) Epernay 2, Beaujolais, Assmanshausen Gamay Beaujolais Petit Sirah Doesn't matter Pinot Noir (light) Beaujolais Pinot Noir (regular) Assmanshausen White Zin Epernay 2, Prise de Mousse Zinfandel, claret style Pasteur Red Zinfandel, fruity Prise de Mousse Zinfandel, heavy Montrachet Zinfandel, over 25 brix Fermivin French/American hybrids Aurora Epernay 2 Cayuga Chanson, Prise de Mousse Red fruity (Chelois, Foch, etc) Epernay 2, Beaujolais Red full bodied (Baco, Chambourcin, etc) Pasteur Red, Fermivin, Assmanshausen Seyval/Vidal Blanc (dry) Chanson, Prise de Mousse Seyval/Vidal Blanc (sweet)Epernay 2 Special types Blanc de noirs and Rose Epernay 2, Prise de Mousse Carbonic Maceration Beaujolais Late Harvest (Botrytis) Beerenauslese, Steinberg Port Pasteur Champagne Sparkling (cuvee) Eperney 2, Prise de Mousse, Pasteur Champagne Sparkling (tirage) Etoile, Calif Champagne, Prise de Mousse Stuck fermentations Fermivin, Pasteur Champagne Non Grape wines Apples Epernay 2, Chanson Berry, Cherry Pasteur Red, Beaujolais Peach, pear, apricot, plumEpernay 2, C. Champ, Prise de Mousse Other Epernay 2 G05. POSSIBLE INGREDIENTS Besides the basic grape juice that most winemakers use, the following is a non-exhaustive list of possible additives or even bases for your wine. Honey, Sugar (sucrose -- white table sugar), Corn Syrup (glucose) (most commercial corn syrup has vanilla added), Corn Sugar (dextrose), Fruit (dried or fresh), Fruit Juices (can be concentrate, but no preservatives: Sorbate is often mentioned in small print even in "100% juice"), Molasses, Maple syrup, Acid blend, Citric acid (Vitamin C, you can use lemon or orange juice), Tannin (can be purchased), Yeast Nutrient (you can boil yeast from previous batch for this, but commercial nutrients work best), Spices (cinnamon, cloves, ginger, etc), Pectic Enzyme (needed for fresh fruit pulp, as some fruit juices (pear and apple notably) require this to clear). G06. BTW, CAN I USE JAM? In principle, you could. Recipes you may come across for jam wines may call for pectin-free jams -- something rather rare unless you make the jam yourself and don't use pectin. Fruit jams naturally will contain pectin from the fruit anyway. Further, the jam need not be pectin-free to work -- that's what pectic enzyme is used for. The big questions is, though, WHY? If you make the jam yourself, why not just make the wine directly? If it's old jam, it's probably oxidized and not appropriate for winemaking (and if opened, probably contaminated, too.) It would take about twice as much pectic enzyme to break down the extra pectin added to the jam. Expect fair wine only from this method. G07. THE RECIPE CALLS FOR TANNIN. WHAT'S THE CONVERSION DRY TO LIQUID? The conversion is 1/4 teaspoon dry tannin equals 0.338140227 fluid ounces. This is about half a gram dry tannin to 10 millilitres liquid. G08. WHAT EQUIPMENT IS REQUIRED Standard Kit (all necessary): - 6.5 imperial gallon bucket (7.74 USG; 29.25 litres) - 5 imperial gallon carboy (6 USG; 23 litres) - plastic spoon - airlock & bung - sheet of plastic - sulphite - hydrometer - J-tube and plastic tubing - J-tube holder for carboy - basic instructions - You should also get a 20 litre (5 USG) food grade plastic jug to carry distilled water if you make kits. It may also be used to carry your juice if you purchase it straight from a market press. - If you are using fruit and preparing it at home, you may require a fruit press. - One 1-gallon (4 litre) glass jug to hold your sulphite solution - Bottle sanitizer -- used for sanitizing bottles, is pump activated, as in by hand (put the bottle over the nozzle, and push down.) - optional if you use the dishwasher and the water is HOT! (65 C or HOTTER!) (use sanitizing cycle) Needed sooner or later (especially if you make a lot of wine), but optional: - Wine filter set AND glass carboy - These can often be rented -- don't buy it until a) You're really hooked on wine making (~3 batches) and b) You find you make a lot of wine and would save by purchasing the system. - Floor corker (often can be rented) Optional, but very strongly recommended: - Jet spray water bottle washer AND tap adapter -- better than a brush - J-tube holder for carboys -- makes it easier to siphon off the wine by making things less awkward and keeping your hands from tiring (may come with the set) Optional, but very useful: - Large plastic box(es) for storage of your equipment. - Hand held bottle corker. It's mainly useful if you make small bottles or little wine. It is a pain in the wrist to use for large scale bottling. - Several extra airlocks and bungs, and extra gallon jugs to take up the wine that the carboy won't take. G09. SUCROSE VS. CORN SUGAR For those of you with really distinguishing palates, sucrose (table sugar) will give a beverage a fruity character; corn sugar, a malty character. Both will nonetheless ferment well in your wine. 3/4 unit of sucrose equals 1 unit of corn sugar; therefore if your recipe calls for 1 lb of sugar, you should use 1 1/3 lbs corn sugar. G10. KITS VS. GRAPES OR FRUIT {Do you have any preferences on wine kits, or should I make wine from grapes or fruit?} Kits vary in quality, usually according to price: The more expensive it is, the better the quality. When buying a kit, don't buy a cheap one just to minimize your financial risk. Cheap wine kits might resemble watery grape juice with fire in them. An expensive kit uses the same principles, but the product is usually far superior. Experiment; often, paying a premium pays off. Look for a kit that has a lot of concentrate. The ideal would be a concentrate that has 16 litres (3.5 imp. gal.; 4.25 USG) of concentrate. The next best would be about 10 kg (22 lbs). Some people swear by kits, while others by fresh juice. As a steady rule, high quality wine that lasts for decades is made from high quality fresh juice from fruit that was grown and picked under optimum conditions. That being said, there are good kits out that are of great quality that can beat out fresh juice wines, but again, usually only the more expensive kits. Experiment and decide for yourself what you want. What YOU like as a final product is the most important factor, as well as the commitment you wish to make. G11. WHAT ARE THE USUAL SIZES USED IN HOME WINEMAKING? It should be noted that the US and Britain use the Imperial system (though Britain also uses the metric system), but the measurements of each system do not necessarily correspond to those of the other. The rest of the world uses the Metric system. Some information found here was found in Alan Marshall's FAQ on sizes, which can be found at: ftp.stanford.edu in /pub/clubs/homebrew/beer/rfdb/beer-capacity.faq Bottle: 750 mL, 1/5 USG, 1/6 imp. gal. Barrel: 36 imp. gal. (UK barrel), 31 USG (US barrel) Carboy: 5 imp. gal., 6.5 USG Demijohn: 25 to 64 litres, 5.6 to 14.2 imp. gal, 6.6 to 16.9 USG Gallon (imperial): 4.5 Litres (abbreviated imp. gal.) Gallon (US): 3.78 Litres (abbreviated USG) Magnum: 1.5 litres, 2/5 USG, 1/3 imp. gal. The usual primary fermentor used by home winemakers holds 6.5 imp. gal. (7.74 USG; 29.25 litres) and the secondary fermentor is a carboy. However, there are various other sizes, such as 5 USG, as well as various other sizes that are convenient to the individual. Bottles: Volume Name 375ml fillette 750ml bottle 1500ml magnum 2250ml tappit 3000ml double magnum 4500ml jeroboam 6000ml imperial G12. BARRELS Why bother with a barrel? Oak adds a compelling complexity to wine. You should make sure the kind of wine you want to make is well suited for oak, since it is more expensive and trouble. For example, just about any high tannin red wine will benefit. Many whites such as chardonnay or sauvignon blanc will also. However, riesling should be left alone. Oak barrels also have an aesthetic quality that other materials can't match. New and Used Barrels Look in a commercial listings phone book for oak barrels, barrel coopers, wine suppliers or the like. Check a wine trade flyer or magazine. You can also contact a winery and ask for their source or ask to purchase one of their used barrels. A trade advertising flyer may carry advertisements for used barrels. Often famous wineries will advertise in them. These are generally for full sized barrels. One may assume that it is the responsibility of the buyer to pick up used barrels. Purchase only from a reputable source. Some people have had bad experiences with used barrels; if you purchase one, "Caveat Emptor -- Buyer Beware". Oak barrels are generally good for two or three years as a source of oak in and of itself. At that point, you can either keep it as a neutral barrel, or you can have a cooperage take it apart, scrape it down to fresh wood, and re-toast the barrel, at which point it's good for some more. Barrel Care Usually empty unused barrels can be stored indefinitely. Once filled with wine, the barrels must either be always full or specially treated when emptied. The recipe for storing solution (for a 40 imp.gal; 50-60 USG) is about 454g (1 lb) citric acid crystals, 454g (1 lb) sodium or potassium metabisulphite and enough water to fill the barrel. Then bung it tight. A new barrel should be filled with water for a week or so before filling with wine as a new barrel will often leak. For leaks there are three things to do. First, wait a few days. Swelling will stop a lot of between stave leaks. Second, if it still leaks between staves, then you'll need to pound the hoops towards the middle of the barrel to tighten up the pressure. Third, if your leak is from a defect in the wood such as a small hole, you can whittle a small plug out of a piece of oak and jam it into the hole. Bleach and other cleaners not specifically labelled for wood barrel cleaning shouldn't be used to clean your barrel as it could remain in the wood and affect the wine you put in it. If the barrel is dirty, then scrub it with water. One trick to clean a barrel is to drop a length of chain inside and shake the barrel around. Don't reuse a barrel in which wine has turned to vinegar; it's impossible to get rid of the vinegar bacteria from the wood. Use the barrel as a planter in your yard. It's generally not a good idea to mix wine types in a barrel, or white and red wine. You'll taste the previous wine in the subsequent wine. Barrels need regular topping off with wine to keep them full. Since a barrel is porous, wine evaporates through the wood. Once a week for topping off works fine; some wineries top off twice a week. Keeping the humidity up in your winery cuts evaporative loss. Losing half a litre a month is normal. The bung stave, the one with the hole in it, often cracks just at the hole as this is the weakest part of the barrel. Either replace the stave or seal the crack with melted wax. Wipe the area around the bung hole often with a sulphite solution. This is the area that gets seepage and spills, and the sulphite keeps this area from being a source of spoilage. Five gallon barrels are discouraged because of the high surface to volume ratio. The wine can get too oaky relatively quickly. When using a five gallon barrel, keep the wine in for a shorter period of time, then blend it with wine from the same vintage that was not in barrel. It seems to work fine. The key is to not let it sit too long. Toasting Level in Barrels The level of toasting appropriate to a wine would be based on what kind of oak taste you want to impart on your wine. Most reds can take higher toast levels than whites. If you plan on using the barrel for whites, a light toast level is appropriate for lighter, earlier maturing whites and maybe medium toast for any fuller body whites to which you wish to impart a bolder toasted taste. If you have a lighter bodied or flavoured red wine, you should go with a lighter toast level to avoid the toasting overwhelming the other flavours of the wine. The majority of reds would fall into the medium toast range. Heavily toasted barrels are rare. It is suggested that you try talking to someone from where you are purchasing the barrel who is knowledgable about the different toast levels and can steer you in the right direction. G13. SANITATION Yeast is tough and tends to beat out most competitors because of its ability to live in an alcohol solution, while bacteria and fungi tend to die even at low alcoholic percentages (though some can live almost as well.) It also survives well because of its rapid reproduction rate as compared to other microorganisms. However, survival isn't everything, since even a small infection can spoil the odour and flavour of your wine. You're unlikely to get sick from these infections, since anything bad will almost always SMELL bad too, and taste worse. To avoid this, keep everything that comes in contact with your wine very clean. This is especially critical when cleaning the fermenting vessel. You don't need to sterilize, as it is impossible to keep things sterile anyway. A solution of bleach water (one capful per gallon) will kill almost anything. You'll need to be very sure all the bleach gets rinsed off since yeast will have trouble living in the presence of chlorine and even the tiniest amount of bleach can produce awful flavours and odours when it reacts with other things in your must. If a fermenter has just been in use and you're rinsing it out to put more wine in immediately, scalding hot water out of the tap will do nicely, no need to use bleach. Note: You SHOULD bleach if this last batch had vinegar in it. G14. PROCEDURE Prepare the yeast. You can either start from a package of yeast or the leftover yeast from a previous batch. If you're using a package of yeast, it can just be thrown in the must, but it works better if you rehydrate it in a (sanitized) glass of water, covered with a plate or plastic wrap. You can also give it something to do by tossing in a spoon of sugar or by substituting some fruit juice for water, but this is not necessary. Re-hydrating only takes about 15 minutes. Prepare your must. Crush your fruit and, where appropriate, add water, sugar and other ingredients. An easy way of preparing non-grape fruit is to put them through a food processor or blender. Must sanitation. There are different schools of thought on how must sanitation should be done: Some people boil their must, others use Campden tablets (2 per gallon), others freeze their fruit (which helps to extract juice and flavours better, and is usually done in conjunction with a dose of sulphite), others pasteurize (raising the must temperature to a given temperature for a period of time), and others don't sanitize at all, but rather allow the wild yeasts to ferment the must. Boiling helps to fend off infections and blend ingredients, but can change the character of whatever you're preparing and caramelize some sugars, producing less desirable results, sweet wine, or both. Often it is sufficient to pour boiling water over pieces of fruit to get wild yeast and bacteria off the surface of the fruit and makes the fruit easier to crush and extract juices. Most fruit juices, especially apple and grape, will ferment out to 7% or 8%, possibly up to 11%. Adding sugar or honey will make a more potent wine or cider. Mix juices, tannins, acids, nutrients in fermenting vessel. Add the yeast, and let it ferment the must. This can take anywhere from 2-3 weeks for a kit to several months with some fruit. Clear the wine. Some people rack the wine from one vessel to another every three months after fermentation is complete until clear; others use a fining agent such as bentonite, gelatin or isinglas. Most people fine and filter their wine before bottling to give the wine a final polish. Aging. Quality improves a lot with age. It is usually best to wait at least a month on anything, and the longer you wait, the better it will be. Most references say wait at least six months or a year but many wines can be drinkable earlier. Keep the bottles in a cool place out of direct sunlight. Wines age better if not jarred or disturbed. Kit wines tend to be best at a year. To determine the optimum aging time required for a wine, make a lot of small bottles and open one up every three months or so and taste it. G15. Why am I adding the bentonite at the beginning? {As I understand it, bentonite is a clearing agent. However, in the instructions for my kit it says to add the bentonite at the same time as the yeast. Why?} It helps to get rid of a lot of stuff (including millions of dead yeast cells) during the primary fermentation by having it all fall out before clearing ever starts. Doing so optimizes the actual clearing process by taking care of a lot of it before you even try. It also helps avoid foul smells from decomposing yeast -- a potential problem when your wine is in the carboy for several weeks or even months -- when you transfer the wine into the secondary by having them all fall out to the bottom in the primary, therefore avoiding their transfer. G16. EGG WHITE CLEARING {How is egg white clearing accomplished? Are the egg whites raw? How does one go about fining with egg white? Any problem with salmonella?} The egg whites are raw. Add about 2 whites per barrel, with a pinch of salt; mix the whole thing to get the salt mixed in -- the salt helps solubilize some proteins in the whites that aren't water soluble. Don't whip the whites, though, or it'll just float on the top like a meringue and require counterfining. Salmonella is a good question, although it likely can't stand the environment of wine for too long (ethanol and low pH). If you're doing very small batches, you don't need to add much at all. You really don't want to add too much. This method should only be used for red wines. G17. HIGHER ALCOHOL LEVELS If you wish to increase your alcohol content, such as for ports, sherries and the like, try syrup feeding. Prepare your must like a regular wine (but keep your initial sg below 1.095) and ferment using a high alcohol tolerant yeast. Rack to secondary as usual at 1.010. When the sg is at 1.000, bring it up to 1.010 with a 2 to 1 sugar to water syrup. This can be done several times, but production will usually stop at roughly 18%. Don't worry about excess sweetness if you're careful as higher alcohol levels tend to mask sweetness, and in order to get the same apparent sweetness as a wine with a given lower alcohol level, you need more residual sugar. If you put in too much sugar, A) deal with a slightly sweet wine and B) experiment to see what works best for you in the future. According to "The Lore of Still Building" by Kathleen Howard and Norman Gibat, you can accomplish concentrate the alcohol (and everything in the wine as well) by putting the wine in a freezer until it turns mushy. It can then be poured or ladled into a large strainer cloth and squeezed dry. The liquid squeezed out will be higher in alcololic content than the residue in the strainer cloth. This method should yield a fortified wine (20% to 30% alcohol) from ordinary wines. Unfortunately, the book does not give a good indication of freezer temperature or how long the wine should be frozen. Please note that this is effectively the same as distillation and can be quite dangerous with regards to methanol concentration. G18. SPARKLING YOUR WINE Champagne can be made by several methods: Traditional method: For 20 litres: Wine should be fermented to 10% alcohol. When still and clear, but without any sorbate or further sulphite added, add 1 cup sugar and champagne yeast to the wine. A couple hours later, bottle wine in champagne bottles with crown caps. Let bottle rest on its side for 1 month. When disgorging and corking, 12oz (360ml) of this wine is to be added to 8oz (240 ml) of vodka or brandy (preffered) and 12oz (360ml), wine conditioner and 1/2 tsp sulphite crystals. This is the "dosage". Over a period of 6 weeks after the initial 1 month period, gradually shift bottle angle from near horizontal to near vertical (neck down) using planks with holes large enough to place the necks in. Then chill the wine to about -1C (30F) without disturbing the sediment (this can be done in a large bucket of ice or outside in the winter.) Place several alternating layers of crushed ice and salt in a bucket and place the necks down in the ice. When the sediment has frozen, carefully point the bottle in a safe direction (such as into your primary) and uncork. The sediment should come out cleanly. After the wine is disgorged, the "dosage" is added to the sparkling wine. The wine is recorked. Articicial carbonation: WARNING: This method can be dangerous. IF YOU AREN'T SURE, ASK YOUR DEALER FOR HELP! Artificial carbonation avoids the nuisance of sediment. The only problem is that it is comparatively a pain in the a$$. You will need to rent the carbonation setup from a local store. You will have to place your wine in the freezer until it is 0C. You will have to charge the tank with CO2, shake, charge, shake, charge, shake. Then each bottle has to be filled under pressure. Estimates for 23L are in the 2-3 hour range not including chilling time, the extra two trips to the store, extra time cleaning, and so forth. When you look at natural carbonation, there is no need to sterilize your solution (less chemicals in your product), it takes two minutes extra to add the 1.5 cup sugar, and the bubbles in your wine will be finer, longer lasting, and they will thread like champagne. So what if you lose an ounce of wine on the bottom of the bottle? Even so, yeast sediment is good for you! Note: Make sure that you use bottles that are designed to be under pressure (such as soda bottles or champagne bottles) and that if you're using a cork that it's secured to the bottle with a wire. Alternatively you can use large beer bottles or other bottles that can use crown caps. G19. ICE WINE {Has anyone had any experience in fudging ice wine?} Icewine is basically a very sweet desert wine where the grapejuice has been naturally concentrated by partially freezing the grapes and pressing, so that the ice will remain with the skins and stems etc., resulting in a very concentrated juice. Home winemakers can produce wonderful icewine style of wines using concentrates. The only difference is that the juice was concentrated in a factory, vs the natural way. Several suggestions follow: In western Canada the Brew Crew and its affiliated stores carry an icewine kit which is made by R.J. Grape products. One kit makes 11.5 liters, and it cost approximately $70 Can. Alternatively you can use a regular kit and only bring it up to 11.5 litres instead of 23. Start with a base wine (fresh juice or concentrate). Adjust the acid level. Adjust the brix by adding honey and concentrate (usually 3 parts concentrate to 1 part honey) to the desired alcohol yield. Ferment until dry. Stabilize the wine, by using sulphite, sorbate, and filter. After stabilization, add concentrate & honey to raise the specific gravity to about 1.050 (THIS IS NOT A TYPO). At this point proceed with normal winemaking techniques (fining, cold conditioning, and it MUST be filtered). This method allows you to be very creative. For example you can start with a riesling as a base, and add a gewurtztraminer concentrate or several different concentrates, even a small amount of red wine concentrate. It is possible to create a truly unique & complex "icewine" type desert wine using this blending method. Note: you can also use this method in regular winemaking as well. Another suggestion is to use a readily available super concentrated form of grapes: RAISINS. Take 1 pound of raisins, and 1 pound of seedless dates, put them in the blender with some juice, blend it until it's a mush and add it to the primary. After fermentation is complete and the wine is stabilized, add 1/2 pound of raisins and the same amount of dates, prepared in the blender (at this point extraction of the sugar and flavour is the goal). Use additional concentrate to raise the specific gravity to 1.050, and proceed as usual. The owner of a brew-on-premises shop combines a 15 litre juice kit and a 3kg to 5kg concentrate kit instead of water to bring the batch to 23 litres. In order to make it the traditional way, the grapes must be left on the vine late in the season until they are partly frozen, usually when the temperature has reached -7C (19F), and then quickly harvested and pressed to get only the concentrated juice in the centre of the grape, while avoiding allowing the ice crystals to melt and/or directly join the must. Alternatively, you can partially freeze your grapes in your freezer. Ferment the juice as you would a regular wine. It is important to keep an eye on the acid levels, especially when using the concentrate feeding method, as concentrates are already acid balanced for 23 litres. G20. DIFFERENT KINDS OF FERMENTATION USED IN WINEMAKING Red wine fermentation: the trick with red wine grapes is to hit a peak temperature near 32C (90F) for at least a short time to optimize colour extraction. Pros naturally achieve temperature -- the large fermenters they use don't allow the heat of fermentation to escape easily. Some go to lengths to try to prevent overheating! With our small tubs, we amateurs must resort to trickery. The best heating system is a "brewbelt" which should be available from a local brewing supply store. A simple trick is to wrap an electric blanket around the fermenter. A submersible thermometer will tell you when you've got the right thermostat setting. Other heat sources are: aquarium heaters (clean well!), space heaters, and waterbed heaters. A good fermentation regimen is to hold the crushed/stemmed must at 40F for 5 days, innoculate and warm to 32C (90F) for a day, then drop the temperature down into the 15C to 26C (60F to 80F) range for a long fermentation, pressing a couple days after cap fall. Cold fermentation: Some white wines benefit from a cooler fermentation, producing a clean, fruity wine that many consumers love. Again, cooler fermentations are difficult for amateurs, and we must resort to trickery. An old fridge run warm (about 10C (50F)) is perfect for a carboy at a time. Icebags suspended in must or placed in a tub in which a fermentation vessel sits can be effective. You can place carboys in tubs of water on the basement floor if it's cool. The water draws warmth from the carboy to the floor. A good target temperature for white wines is 10C to 13C (50F to 55F). Barrel fermentation: It's not hard once you get past the expense of the barrel. Press the grapes in the usual fashion, settle the juice overnight. Rack the juice into the barrel (previously swelled to prevent leaks) to about 80% full. Inoculate with yeast, jam an airlock in the bunghole and wait. After about 2 to 3 weeks, when vigorous action has slowed, top the barrel off and keep it topped. Leave it in the barrel for anywhere from 3 weeks to a year, depending on many factors (age of oak, desired amount of oak flavour, etc.) Malolactic fermentation: MLF, as it is abbreviated, is a bacterial fermentation where sharp malic acid in wine is converted by bacteria to mellower lactic acid. MLF is usually good, especially for high acid Chardonnays. Pinot Noir, which has a high natural malic acid content, almost always undergoes MLF and benefits from it. The MLF bacteria comes in with the grapes sometimes, can be present in your facility and equipment and is available for purchase at most wine supply shops. If you want MLF to happen, keep sulphite down. MLF is sensitive to sulphite, low pH's (especially below 3.0), and cool temperatures (below 15C (60F)). So, inoculate early -- many do it soon after yeast fermentation has started (the must is warm and has little sulphite). If your pH is very low, the wine can be partly neutralized to raise the pH. Be careful at this point as adding too much chalk can add a chalky taste to the wine. Refer to section G21. ACID BALANCE. MLF survives very well in barrels, so if you are putting your Pinot in a barrel that has held a wine that has undergone MLF, it will take off on its own. This has historically been a common occurence in the spring following harvest. The lees in the barrel or carboy harbour the bacteria, so leaving wine on the lees until late spring can give MLF encouragement. Some wines, like Riesling, don't like MLF. A moderate sulphite dose almost always provides adequate protection against it and all the other bacterial fermentations. You can tell that MLF is happening in 3 ways. One is to use chromatography to measure relative malic and lactic acid levels. Another is to notice the onset of renewed CO2 action (bubbles) well after the yeast fermentation is done. Another is to taste the change in the wine from more sharp to more mellow and buttery. Lee Stirring When this is done this in a winery, it's usually in conjuction with barrel fermentation. Hence, the primary lees are the ones that are stirred. Having said this, it should be pointed out that the juice has been racked once before inoculation so the solids are in the less than 2% range in the juice at inoculation. Stirring frequency is up to the winemaker but even no stirring will result in what is described as a greater mouthfeel. This can lead to a sense of richness, softness and definitely better integration of oak, malolactic character and fruit. Many wineries start off stirring weekly (originally the stirring was done to encourage malolactic fermentation) and then gradually tapering to once every two weeks to once a month with usually the end being at 6-9 months depending on taste. And that's the most important indicator. Sometimes, there can be a sulphide problem, so you have to taste the wine throughout the process. If you push the wine through MLF you shouldn't have a bacterial problem. Also, once MLF is complete you should add some sulphite to avoid bacterial spoilage. G21. ACID BALANCE Finished wines usually should have the following acid levels (expressed as tartaric acid): Fruit wines 0.60% 6.0g/L Red grape wines 0.65% 6.5g/L White grape wines 0.75% 7.5g/L Sherry types 0.50% 5.0g/L 1 ounce of acid blend will raise 5 imp. gal. by 0.13%. 1/4 ounce calcium carbonate chalk or 1/3 ounce potassium carbonate chalk per gallon will lower acid by 0.15%. Maximum recommended chalk is 0.5 ounce calcium chalk per gallon to avoid a faint chalky taste. Potassium bicarbonate produces better results with less taste then calcium carbonate, and will work better with cold stabilization. If your wine is really high in acid (VERY low pH), add some water. G22. CHILLPROOFING Tartaric acid crystals may fall out of solution to form a white, crystalline sediment after a while, particularly if your wine gets chilled. They're harmless and do not add any taste to the wine. To avoid the problem, chillproof your wine for a couple of weeks in the carboy in a cool to cold place -- an old fridge or a cold cold room is appropriate. Desired temperature is 4C (36F). G23. DO ALL WINES CONTAIN SULPHITES? All wines do contain sulphur compounds, and almost invariably sulphur dioxide, a common additive preservative. Yeast produce sulphur compounds as a byproduct of metabolism. The level they produce is usually enough to require the "contains sulphites" addition to labels. Yeast typically produce around 10 ppm (10mg/L) but may produce more. It is thought not to be harmful unless one is very allergic to sulphur compounds. There are varying degrees of sulphite sensitivity, ranging from sinus inflammation to, in extreme cases, respiratory failure. Many winemakers, both commercially and at home, are trying to reduce sulphite levels. Sulphite is often added to the wine as a microbiological and oxidative inhibitor in wines, the amount wildly ranging depending on the producer. Often the value may as well be related to the colour of their eyes or their height. :) G24. HOW MUCH SULPHITE IS NEEDED? Neither SO2 nor sorbate kills yeasts; they inhibit them, and can prevent microbial activity, but only if the cell counts are low. If you have a mounting problem, they won't do a good job in controlling it. The amount of sulphite needed depends on the pH of the wine -- the lower the pH the less you need (at pH 3.2, you need 21ppm (21mg/L) free SO2; at pH 3.5, you need 50ppm (50mg/L) free SO2.) This has to do with A) the fact that the active form that inhibits bacteria forms better at lower pH's and B) the lower the pH, the better the acidity in the wine is in itself able to protect the wine. The following is the pH dependant equilibrium for those of us who actually understand it. The forms depicted in the left are favoured by higher pH's; the right by lower pH's. SO2 + H2O <---> HSO3- + H+ <---> SO3-- + H+ 1 ppm = 1 mg/L, therefore for 5 gallons of wine with a pH of 3.2, you need: 5gal*4.5L/gal = 22.5L 21mg/L*22.5L = 472.5mg Since this is free SO2, we need a conversion for potassium and sodium metabisulphate, (K2S205 and Na2S205 respectively) which are 3.47 and 2.97 respectively. So we need 1.6g or 1.4g of each respectively -- a little under a quarter of a teaspoon. Through the same process you need half a teaspoon for a wine with pH 3.5. One campden tablet is 0.55 grams, or about 1/12 of a teaspoon. It's always important to remember that both of these products work better with low pH's, so a non-standard wine (i.e. fruit wine) may require really large amounts due to high pH. There is unfortunately no handy way to actually kill yeast in your wine at home. G25. TOPPING UP YOUR WINE Topping up your wine is the process of making your carboy as full of wine as possible to make sure that there is as small a contact with air as possible, therefore minimizing oxidation risks. Some suggestions follow: A) Make more than five gallons, particularly if you're using fresh fruit; when racking, squeeze the berries to get the liquid out to maximize wine volume to begin with. Keep the extra wine in the fridge until needed. B) Add water. This can change the sweetness and acid of your wine. C) Add a honey/water mixture D) Top off with some commercial wine of the same type as you're making. This will keep the taste from being watered down E) Use an inert gas such as CO2. This can be gotten from a supplier, or if you have access to it, use dry ice. Some suppliers also have cans of inert gas used to top up bottles of wine. F) Added clean marbles or aquarium gravel to reduce the amount of room in the carboy so the wine is closer to the neck. When you do rack and you introduce something to your wine to top it up, add some sulfite. Sulfite also helps reduce oxidation and will help kill any bacteria introduced when racking. G26. HOW TO KNOW WHEN A WINE IS READY TO DRINK By no means is the following meant to be complete or authoritative; however, it does contain some means of determining maturity. If you know any more, please let the editor (malak@cam.org) or r.c.w. know. The first thing to remember is that wine-tasting (and therefore when a wine is "ready") is a subjective exercise and your favourite wine is someone else's least favourite some of the time. Everyone has a different palate. Some like oak, some acid, some fragrance, some body. Kit wines tend to peak at 1 year. Check that the acid balance and tannin level are high enough if you want it to last longer. Many other fruit wines peak at 3 to 5 years. Most fine wines that take time will still usually peak long before 25 years unless tannins, acids and fruit flavours are unusually concentrated. Two of the easiest ways of assessing a wine's maturity are tasting the wine at intervals and holding a bottle up to the light to assess the wine's colour. Assessing the wine by tasting is your responsibility; however, acidity and astringency (the latter from tannins) will gradually diminish with age, while fruitiness will typically diminish and give way to more subtle and developed aromas with age, so look for smoothness and complexity. But watch out! After a certain time, the wine can actually get tired and move past its peak. Watch out for wines that have a tired, thin, flabby taste. A practical way to taste over time is to make a lot of small bottles. You should also be careful: In the reductive environment of the bottle, many wines develop hydrogen sulfide smells, and if it smells bad initially, swirl the wine around in a glass. Decanting can help, but it's tricky because you can overdo it with a delicately-balanced wine. You should also be inspecting the corks for A) leakage B) rot, and C) dryness. Outside development of mould is not bad, but escape of some wine through the cork is bad. As for colour, with age, red wine goes from a deep red or even purple to lighter shades of red. Typical descriptors for an aged red are "brick," and "orange." White wine goes from a pale straw colour to amber. Also, when examining the bottles in the light, check for clarity -- haziness can indicate A) protein haze B) metals casse (haze) C) microbiological activity, or D) pectin haze. The worst of these is, of course, microbiological activity. You should also check the ullage (fill level) -- if that has decreased, it could indicate excessive evaporation or leakage, which could oxidatively deteriorate the wine or indicate the possibility of microbial incursion. Now for some tips on wine tasting, which might help you determine what you like, and therefore impact how you make and age your wine. Deciding what was liked about his wines was what caused the editor (and no doubt others) to determine how he went about making his wines. Don't mix sweet wines with dry wines unless you drink the sweet wines last. Taste the wines twice or even three times and rescore them. They change flavour on exposure to air or if they warm up. Drink white wines cool; let red wines air out. Find out what styles you personally like and what your friends like and why. See if you can find wines that everyone likes. These are the hardest to make and usually the best buys. Try to agree on flawed the cause of wines' mousy smell (bad filtration, mould or bad corks), oxidation etc. The main thing is to not be too serious and not to talk too much while you're tasting e.g. "Oh...this is just great!!!" Save comments till later and don't force your tastebuds on your neighbour. Have lots of chlorine free water and bits of bread or unsalted crackers to clean your moutn between wines. Brown bag the bottles until everyone has tasted. This is a lot of fun and removes a lot of personal bias which has nothing to do with tasting. G27. VINOMETERS {Could someone tell me the principle of how a vinometer works?} Water's structure causes it to have a very high surface tension and exhibit marked capillary action. In other words if you stick a narrow tube in the water the water is pulled up the column. The more alcohol present the more the capillary action is affected thus the height of the column changes. Add graduations based on standard solutions of water and alcohol and you have a reasonably accurate method of determining the concentration of a water alcohol solution. Problem is that wine has lots of other things that can affect capillary action and surface tension. The most prominent of these are residual sugars. That's why the instructions that come with the device probably say to only use it on dry wines (wines with minimal residual sugar). G28. HOW TO MEASURE ALCOHOL LEVELS IN YOUR WINE To calculate Alcohol by Volume: Subtract the last reading from the initial gravity and divide the result by 0.0074 this gives the approximate alcohol content in %. Ex.: S.G. = 1.070 F.G. = 0.995 1.070 - 0.995 = 0.075 0.075 / 0.0074 = 10.15% It does not matter what the first or last reading is, both mean little alone. The difference between the two does! Usually there is also an alcohol scale marked directly on a hydrometer; subtract initial potential alcohol reading from final, and the difference is the approximate alcohol content. Another method is the boiling method: - take 250 ml of wine - measure specific weight and temperature - boil the wine down to half of its volume - get the same volume of liquid by adding boiled water - cool to the same temperature as above - measure specific weight - the difference between the two is related to the alcohol level; use the following table: diff. alcohol s/w volume % 8 5,63 9 6,40 10 7,18 11 7.98 12 8,80 14 10,51 16 12,30 18 14,10 20 16,00 22 18,00 spec. weight is in gram/litre G29. WHAT'S THE BEST PAPER AND ADHESIVE TO USE FOR LABELS? Paper: Any paper will do -- printer paper, copy paper, whatever. Envelope labels are more difficult to take off. Inkjet printouts may run if exposed to the slightest moisture; try photocopying. Adhesives: Typically, you should use a water soluble adhesive that is easy to apply and allows for quick, easy removal of labels. Milk: Use a small brush and lightly coat the back of the label, then press it onto the bottle. Stick glue (UHU or Pritt or the like). Water/sugar/flour: The old kid-paste trick. G30. BOTTLES & CORKS: Any glass bottle without defect that will hold a cork firmly in its neck will do. However, bottles that used to contain wine are recommended. Sources are home use, friends, relatives, restaurants and recycling bins. TIP: Use one style of bottle for your wine, or at least one style per batch of wine. That way the "whole experience" is more visually appealling, and it may help you when storing & handling the bottles (uniformity = easier). There is a multitude of methods and general procedures for preparing bottles for bottling; basically, they involve washing the bottle and sanitizing them. To wash, soak the bottles in soapy hot water (which incidentally will remove most labels without any labour) for half an hour, rinse the outside, rinse the interior with a jet-spary bottle washer, sanitize with a sulphite solution, and bottle your wine. Dishwashers with HOT water can replace the rinsing of the outside of the bottle (but NOT the inside) and sanitizing with sulphite. Using soap to wash and/or chlorine bleach to sterilize the bottles is not a concern as long as you rinse the bottles thoroughly on the inside to remove any residue. Corks should not be reused. When preparing, soak the corks in just boiled water with sulphite in it for at least half an hour before bottling. This will soften the corks and the sulphite will avoid contamination from the corks and their handling. Steaming also works. Another method is to rinse corks in a sulphite solution, about 500 ppm, then shake off the excess solution and place them in a bag for a week before use. This allows the moisture to get absorbed into the corks which softens them and makes it easier to insert. Short corks are for short term storage, long corks are for long term storage. Composite corks are for short term storage. The editor has had more corked bottles from composite corks than whole ones. Short corks are easier to pull, and often have fewer defects than longer ones. End bevelling is only important for hammer corkers & the both-end-bevelled ones allow hammer corking to proceed somewhat beyond sobriety. The narrower corks (and silicone lubricated ones) are easier for hand corking, and the wide ones are more secure and allow slightly carbonated wines to be made without too many corks popping. Pure corks are a little easier to put in and take out, but they have a lot more defects than composite corks. Plastic corks appear to be mildly inadequate, although useable for short term storage. Problems include difficulty in retraction and leakage. Some people have found that they work well and that they are less expensive. And it is suggested that you use a floor model corker if you make any large amounts of wine and bottle it all as a hand corker can be tiring. G31. HOW ABOUT DISTILLING MY WINE? Distillation is basically heating an alcoholic beverage to the boiling point and cooling its steam, with the intention of concentrating the alcohol. Though at perfectly safe levels when you ferment your wine, distillation will concentrate the methanol content in your beverage to levels that may be dangerous. Because of the dangers of not properly removing the minute amounts of methanol present found in most fermented products, home distillation is illegal in most Western countries, and likely most others. There is a remote possibility that it may also invite the government to your house for an unwelcome visit. THE EDITOR THEREFORE STRONGLY RECOMMENDS AGAINST ANY HOME ATTEMPTS AT DISTILLATION. G32. WHAT ARE GOOD REFERENCES FOR WINEMAKING? For the beginner: Modern Winemaking by Jackisch Grapes into Wine by Philp Wagner "The Roots of Health" by Gypsy Petulegro For the more advanced: Winemaking Basics by C.S. Ough. Don't let the title fool you, although there are basics in there, some areas look like a chemistry course. Wine Analysis and Production, Zoecklein et al., Chapman & Hall, and is available through the magazine PWV (Practical Winery and Vineyard) for $79.95 + shipping. For both: Winemaking: Recipes, equipment, and techniques for making wine at home. Stanley F. Anderson and Dorothy Anderson. A Harvest/HBJ Original. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. San Diego, New York, London. 1989. You Made This? A Guide to Making Wine No One Knows is Homemade. Thomas Bachelder. Kylix Media Inc. Montreal, Canada. 1992. BETTER WINEMAKING MAGAZINE, a quarterly, NON-PROFIT publication, dedicated to the home winemaking, cidermaking and brewing enthusiast. Write to Paul Jean at jeanpaul@magi.com for further information. GETTING STARTED WINEMAKING, Paul Jean Jr. Published by JE Underhill, 1993. Covers all aspects of winemaking from kits, introduces winemaking from juice and grapes and gives recipes for wines from 48 non-grape fruits. Instructions on the use of a hydrometer, acid testing (6 easy steps) calculating parts per million (ppm) and proper use of sorbate to stabilize wines. Also are items on how to fix problem wines. $5.00 by mail. Write to Paul Jean at jeanpaul@magi.com for further information. First Steps in WineMaking By C.J.J. Berry ISBN 0-900841-83-4 On cellars: "How and Why To Build a Wine Cellar" by Richard M. Gold, Ph.D. For Winery startup: Practical Winery and Vineyard 15 Grande Paseo San Rafael, CA 94903-1534 (415) 479-5819 Subcription is $30US/year for 6 issues (1995) *************** TROUBLESHOOTING *************** T01. I DIDN'T REHYDRATE MY YEAST. IS THAT BAD? Not generally. It is recommended to rehydrate your yeast, however, as this will give it a greater advantage in innoculating your wine and avoiding contamination by other nasties. That means that the wine will begin fermenting sooner. Rehydrate for at least 15 minutes; even better overnight in a sample of the juice. T02. WHY HASN'T MY WINE STARTED BUBBLING YET? {I put the yeast in about 12 hours ago and I don't see any signs of fermentation. Does wine yeast take longer to kick in?} YES. The sugar level is higher in the wine must than in a beer wort, and thus the yeast takes longer to get going. Float your rapidly fermenting starter (rehydrated yeast) onto the top of the must. The editor has also found that inadequate mixing of water and concentrate plays tricks on the sugar/water concentration in different parts of the fermentor, making ignition of the wine difficult for the yeast. The solution is to properly mix the must, and as a safety precaution add another packet of fresh yeast. If your wine still refuses to start, the starter or wine could be too hot or too cool, or the yeast too old. Ideal temperatures are between 20C to 22C (68F to 72F). If the starter or wine was too cool, move it to a warmer location. If it was too warm, then move to a cooler location. Note: you may need to reinnoculate if it was too warm, as excessive warmth could kill your yeast. Stuck ferment can be cured by, in the following order, A) moving the wine to an area with an appropriate temperature, B) adding yeast nutrient, C) adding yeast energizer, D) adding 1 gallon of the wine to 5 gallons of a similar wine during a healthy ferment. T03. MY WINE STOPPED BUBBLING. WHAT'S WRONG? {My wine was bubbling furiously for 3 weeks but has now stopped. I moved it to a warmer room but still nothing. Any suggestions?} The operative clue here is "3 weeks". Check your sg, and if it's less than 1.000, then the wine has fermented out. Go to the next step. Another possibility is that you have a very high alcohol wine (starting sg higher than 1.100) and the alcohol level has gotten so high that the yeast can't tolerate it anymore (and you might have a slightly sweet wine.) If not, follow the instructions for stuck ferment in the section T02. WHY HASN'T MY WINE STARTED BUBBLING YET? T04. FOAMING PROBLEMS {I just racked my kit wine from the primary into the carboy. The problem is there is a lot of foam. When I had the bottom of the cork 1 inch from the top of the wine the foam came all the way up the cork spout and into the air trap. I lowered the wine level to 2 inches and it's not coming out anymore. Is this foam OK?} Probably. Some kits foam a lot. If you stretch the kit beyond the 5 imp. gal. mark, the last gallon has to be transferred into a glass jug. When there's too much foam in the secondary (usually 2-3 inches), start the transfer into the jug. By the time the jug has been filled, most of the foam in the secondary has subsided. The foam that forms in the carboy during secondary or stays after transfer is annoying but harmless. To avoid it being a problem in the air lock, keep the level of the wine about two inches from the top. You can use a sanitized drink stirrer from a restaurant to break up the foam. T05. MY WINE JUST WON'T CLEAR. WHY NOT? {I'm in the middle of making a kit and am concerned about the time it's taking to clear. The wine was racked after the primary and again after 10 days. The instructions say the wine should clear within 14 days after the second racking and can be bottled then. There is a disclaimer that if the wine hasn't cleared within the stated time, it may be filtered.} It could be related to stretching your clearing agents; don't. Buy extra gelatin for extra wine over the 5 imp. gal. mark. In any event, any wine may not clear 100%, and certainly even 2 weeks may not be long enough. It could be that the fermentation is going slowly due to a cold room. It won't hurt the wine at all to leave it longer in the secondary. Wine can be left an extra month at times with no problem. Racking repeatedly won't help much as long as the secondary is left undisturbed between rackings. As for filtering, always filter regardless of how clear the wine is. Even if the wine isn't 100% clear, the resulting bottled wine will usually be perfectly clear. T06. MY FINED AND FILTERED WINE IS HAZY. WHAT'S WRONG? {I made some Blackberry wine; the fermentation has now stopped and most of the 'bits' have settled but there is still a lot of stuff sort of hanging in the demijohn. What is this, what may I have done wrong, and how can I prevent it next time?} If you didn't use pectic enzyme during your fermentation to get rid of it, the cause could be natural pectins in the fruit. Bentonite is also helpful in clearing such haze. Activated charcoal may also work, but may also strip your wine of other components if you put in too much or use it for too long. If all else fails, try leaving the finished wine outside overnight on a cold, frosty night. Those who don't live in such cold climates can use a refrigerator on a very cold setting. The cold will help it to clear. T07. HOW DO I GET RID OF THE STRONG PAPER TASTE/PAPER FIBRES IN FILTERED WINE? When filtering your wine, the instructions should include a part on running a couple of gallons of water through the filter first in order to remove these problems. T08. THE WINE I BOTTLED IS FIZZY. WHY? {I opened some wine I bottled about 3 months ago and found it to be a little fizzy. It can be just felt in the mouth, and is easy to see on the sides of the glass. I have opened 3 bottles before this one and didn't find the problem. Is it just beginning to show in all the bottles, or is this bottle a fluke?} There could be several "problems": A) You didn't get rid of the carbonation sufficiently (stir it a little harder and add an extra day of stirring before stabilizing.) This usually presents itself from the first bottle opened on. B) You didn't stabilize the wine correctly, and there may have been some fermentation of residual sugar or MLF in the bottle. Don't stretch stabilisers; buy extra for the extra wine. MLF can (and often does) happen in the bottle. It happens because of low sulphite levels at bottling. MLF will also cause cloudiness, followed by sediment. C) When you filtered your wine (assuming you did it under vacuum) the vacuum was insufficient to remove 100% of the carbonation. Not much you can do except refer to A) and B). T09. ORNERY BOTTLE LABELS {Some labels are miserable ... even after soaking you have to pick the label off a little at a time and no amount of scrubbing or scraping removes all of the glue. Is there an easier way?} A) Soak all your bottles in HOT soapy water with soap in it for a few hours; most labels will come off readily. B) Some glue isn't water soluble, so use some turpentine to dissolve it; then use powdered soap to wash off the turpentine. Wallpaper remover can also work well. C) Occasionally expect to scrape off labels. T10. MY WINE SMELLS BAD. WHAT HAPPENNED? There are three major problems: A) Somewhere along the line, you didn't keep things clean. The wine could have been infected by something that produced off flavours and smells. REMEMBER: Everything that touches the wine in any way has to be very clean and sanitized first. B) It's possible that your wine is corked. In this case, it will have a strong cork smell and taste. The cause is that the cork you used either wasn't properly sanitized before use or when it was made it didn't get cleaned properly. C) Rotten egg smell (hydrogen sulphide) can come from low acid wines in which dead yeast start to lyse ("explode") and live cells feed on them or when there is not enough yeast nutrient. In cases A & B, your wine has gone bad. HOWEVER: It may be a bottle by bottle problem, particularly with corked wine, so be careful about wasting good wine. In case C, pour (do not syphon) the wine into a clean vessel and add 1 campden tablet per gallon as well as some yeast nutrient. T11. I SEEM TO HAVE VINEGAR. ANY HOPE? Nope. Throw it out or cook with it. It would be advisable to bleach the infected containers as well. Your wood barrel should NEVER be used again for winmaking, as the vinegar bacteria will never get out. Use it as a planter in your yard. REMEMBER TO CLEAN ANYTHING THAT TOUCHES YOUR WINE! T12. MYCODERMA (FLOWERS OF WINE) This is when grey islands appear on the surface. Before they completely cover the surface (in which case it's too late, and you'll have to throw it out) strain the wine through cotton mesh and add 2 campden tablets per gallon. T13. I RINSED WITH COLD WATER AFTER SULPHITING. IS THAT BAD? Usually this shouldn't cause a problem, unless your water supply isn't potable or is unreliable. Pros: A) You can rinse out any extra dirt loosened by the sulphite solution rinse B) You can avoid as much bitter taste from sulphate (oxidized sulphite) and reduce problems with sulphite allergies by rinsing it out Cons: A) You have a very mild risk of contamination which is contrary to the process of sulphiting in the first place T14. I NEED TO TOP UP. HOW DO I DO IT? There are several suggestions: - Make a little more wine than your secondary fermentor can hold, and keep the extra amount in a sealed container in the fridge. Use it to top up as you need to. - Purchase a bottle or two of the same kind of wine and use to top up. - Use water. Be careful as too much water will dilute your wine. - Use marbles or clean stones to raise the level of the wine. Be careful with regards to cleanliness. - Use smaller containers. - Use a CO2 source (such as vinegar and baking soda, or dry ice) to create a blanket over the wine -- pour out the CO2 from the container, but not the liquid! Contributors: Don Buchan (editor) (malak@cam.org), Eric Garrison (ericg@iquest.net), Peter Rosback (peterr@wine.tv.tek.com), Tony DeVito (tonyd@dorsai.org), Brian Carty (bcarty@bnr.ca), Rick Regan (rdr@law.cua.edu), David B. Gibson (aj749@freenet.carleton.ca), Don Schiller (bigdon@minn.net), Dave Kehlet (david.kehlet@eng.sun.com), Scott Arighi (sarig@teleport.com) Richard Castle (rcastle@gpu2.srv.ualberta.ca), Victor Reijs (reijs@surfnet.nl), Jack Ziebart (jziebart@bbs.sd68.nanaimo.bc.ca), Christopher Sawtell (chris@gerty.equinox.gen.nz), Tamiko Toland (veraison@aol.com) Brian Hiebert (bhieber@adminbldg.lan1.umanitoba.ca), Greg Owen (gowen@cs.tufts.edu, gowen@xis.xerox.com), Paul (placitas76@aol.com), K.D. Colagio (kdc5072@ultb.isc.rit.edu), Mark Levesque (levesque@nacto.lkg.dec.com), Philip DiFalco (sxupjd@fnma.com), Anthony Hawkins (hawkins@bigvax.alfred.edu), Patrick J. Tierney (projexis@ottawa.net), Bob Konigsberg (bobk@3com.com), Tim Hodkinson (timothy@lerhost.demon.co.uk), Michael Arthurs (fqcx72a@prodigy.com), Bob Konigsberg (bobk@3com.com), Art Turner (an220@freenet3.carleton.ca), Ronald Elshaug (rone@worf.rchland.ibm.com), Bryan Johnson (green@gatewest.net), Ronald Elshaug (rone@worf.rchland.ibm.com), Klaus Oehr (Klaus_Oehr@mindlink.bc.ca), Morley (news@cunews.carleton.ca), Geza T Szenes (Geza_T_Szenes/IPL.IPL@notes.ipl.ca), John Katchmer (74542.3312@compuserve.com), Warren Vidrine (75113.3343@compuserve.com, vidrine@aol.com) The NET RESOURCES section is in a seperate posting.